MORPHOLOGY, THE WORD STRUCTURE

                MORPHOLOGY

Morphology is related to the conceptual study of the internal structure of words. It supplies us  information about words like phonetics which supply  phonological information of words.

Concerned with morphology , we are able to understand many kinds of information about the world's meaning, the grammatical information (what kind of parts of speech the word is) , how the word has come,  collocations, idioms as well as structural information.

A morpheme may be defined as the smallest constituent of a word which bears the grammatical significance.

 In English, we,normally, have two types of morphemes:

                  1) Free Morpheme , and

                   2) Bound Morpheme.

1) Free Morpheme:

The free morpheme has its own identity of a word..

E.G. agree, tooth, went

2) Bound Morpheme:

The bound morpheme , as having no word type identity, associates with a free morpheme.

E.G. 'dis' of disagreeable, or ' able' of disagreeable, the plural processor of feet, the tense doer 's' of go.

Following the morphological information, the words are:

  1) Simple word

 2) Compound word

 3) Complex word

1) Simple word:

       The simple word means a single substance of the word, as in ; allow, end, wise, etc.

2) Complex word:

        The complex word is strongly moulded with a free morpheme and one or more than one bound morphemes.

Example,

          Disallow, endlessly, wisdom, etc.

3) Compound word:

            Compound word are made a link with

two or more free morphemes.

eg, letterbox, homemade, red-hot,etc.

T H E F   F O R M A T I O N   O F  W O R D

    Three grounds which helps us to form a new word(s) from a known one are:

                1) Affixation

                 2) Compounding

                 3) Conversion 

             

     AFFIXATION

Affixation is a process of attaching bound morphemes to the words. This process includes Roots, Stems,and  Affixes.

ROOT:

The root is the free morpheme from which the word grows. As in,

The root is  'comfort' in the word 'uncomfortable'. 

STEM:

The term 'Stem' means the portion to which affixes are attached. For example, the portion of the word   'comfortable' is the stem to which the 'un' affix is attached.

AFFIXES: 

A bound morpheme which is attached either to the beginning of the a or to the end of a stem. Thus, affixes are two types which are;

1. PREFIX, and

2. SUFFIX.

PREFIX:

A prefix is a bound morpheme that is attached to the beginning of a stem, eg; 'dis' in disagreement.

SUFFIX:

A suffix is also a bound morpheme that is attached to the end of a stem, eg; 'al' in unconventional. 

PREFIXES

1. Negative prefixes: un,  non, in, im, il, ir, dis, a, etc.

2. Reverse prefixes: un, dis, de, etc.

3. Pejorative prefixes: mis, mal, pseudo, etc.

4. Degree and size prefixes: arch, super, sur, sub, out, over, under, hyper, ultra, mini,etc.

5. Attitude prefixes: co, counter, anti, pro, etc.

6. Location types: super, inter, trans, sub, etc.

7. Time and order prefixes: fore, pre, post, ex, re,etc.

8. Number prefixes: uni, mono, bi, di, tri, multi,etc.

9. Conversion types: be, en, a, 

10. Others: auto, self, Neo, pan, semi, vice, proto, etc.

N.B. Except for a few, prefixes help in meaning making, not especially structure of parts of speech of words.

   SUFFIXES

1. Noun suffixes: 

1. Occupational types: ster, eer, etc.

2. Diminutive and feminitive types: let, ette, ess, y, etc.

3. Domain types: hood, ship, dom, ocracy, ery, etc.

4. Others: ing, ling, ful, ism, etc.

2) Adjective suffixes: ful, less, ly, like, y, ish, ian, al, ic, ive, ous, ible/able, ing, ed, etc.

3) Verb suffixes: ify, ize, and en.

4) Adverb suffixes: ly, wise, and ward.

5) Mixed cases: ite, ian, ese, ist, ism, er, or, ant, ee, action, ment, al, ing, age, ness, and ity.

Notes: 1)Root= Stem( resulting)

                       2) Root + Prefixes/Suffixes=Stem(resulting)

                        3) Stem + Prefixes/Suffixes=( resulting)

                        4) Prefix(es) + root/ stem+ suffix(es)= resulting word.     

The study of morphology is guided by inflectional morphology and derivational morphology. Inflectional morphology deals with grammatical affixes to perform some grammatical functions, and Derivational morphology deals with lexical affixes, or the large word store of a language, or vocabulary items of forming new words.

FORMING OPPOSITES:

1. Using Separate Words

2. Using Derivational Prefixes

3. Using Derivational Suffixes

Using Separate Word( antonym)

     Word                   Antonym

1. day                   night

2. break               make

3. front                  rear

4. wilful                reactant

5. light                   shade

6. synthesis         analysis

7. country              town

8. Simplicity         duplicity

9. connect             sever

10. climb             alight

11. Active           lazy

12. Attack            defend

13. Attentive        careless

14. Bitter               sweet

15. Blame             praise

16. Blessing           curse

17. Bold                  timid

18. Busy                 free

19. Calm                disturb

20. Cancel              confirm

21. Care                 neglect

22. Certain             doubtful

23. Change            preserve

24. Chaos               order

25. Confident         doubtful

26. Costly                cheap

27. Danger               safety

28. Dead                 alive

29. Deep                shallow

30. Deny          acknowledge

31. Deligent           idle

32. Domestic       foreign

33. Eager            indifferent

34. Essential     superfluous

35. Extinct           living

36. Fact               fiction

37. Farcical          tragic

38. Favourable     adverse

39. Final               first

40. Freedom         slavery

41. General       exceptional

42. Glorious          base

43. Gradual          abrupt

44. Hide                reveal

45. Huge               small

46. Ideal                real

47. Ignorance      knowledge

48. Inborn            acquire

49. Include            exclude

50. Juvenile          adult

51. Kill                  enliven

52. Leisure            toil

53. Likely              unlikely

54. Mad                 sane

55. Material          spiritual

56. Merit               demerit

57. Miser              spendthrift

58. Negligent        attentive

59. Odd                 ordinary

60. Oppose            aid

61. Partial               total

62. Permit             prohibit

63. Praise             censure

64. Queer              normal

65. Reason            folly

66. Recent             ancient

67. Reckless         cautious

68. Reject             accept

69. Resist             tolerate

70. Ripe                  raw/gree

71. Seek                shun

72. Sow                 reap

73. Special             general

74. Stiff                    easy

75. Teacher             pupil

76. Tutor                   pupil

77. Unique              common

78. Unity                 separate

79. Urge                  defer

80. Vanish              appear

81. Vanity              modesty

82. Violent             cool

83. Wage              gratuity

84. Wild                  mild

85. Weep              rejoice

86. Wonderful      common

87. Worldly          spiritual

88. Yield               withhold

89. Youth               old

90. Zealous           apathetic

USING DERIVATIONAL PREFIXES:

1)'UN' : the opposite of

Stem: adjective and participle

Examples:

Fair - unfair 

1.  Attractive- unattractive

2. Acceptable- unacceptable

3. Available- unavailable

4. Aware- unaware

Accompanied- unaccompanied

6) believable- unbelievable

7) comfortable- uncomfortable

8) civilized- uncivilized

9) doing- undoing

10) friendly- unfriendly

11) even- uneven

12) limited- unlimited

13) lawful- unlawful

15) pleasing- unpleasing

2) 'NON': NOT

    Stem: noun,  adjective,          

               participle, adverb

Examples:

1. Payment-.  non-payment

2. Stop-         non- stop

3. Committal- non-committal

4. Living-        non- living

5. Woven-      non-woven

6. Conducting- non- conducting

7. Plus-          nonplus(perplexing)

8. Descriptive- non descriptive

9. Intervention- 

 non- intervention

10. Co- operation-          non- co-operation

3) 'IN' : same as 'un'

     Stem: noun, adjective

Examples:

 Ability- inability

Activity- inactivity

Accessibility- inaccessible

Accuracy- inaccuracy

Attention- inattention

Audible- inaudible

Auspicious- inauspicious

Capacity- incapacity

Correct- incorrect

Comparable- incomparable

Difference (noun)- indifference

Different (adjective) indifferent

Dignity- indignity

Explicable- inexplicable

Effectual- ineffectual

Efficient(adj)- inefficient

Efficiency (noun)- inefficiency

Famous- infamous

Firm- infirm

Frequent- infrequent

Gratitude- ingratitude

Hospitable- inhospitable

Justice- injustice

Numerable- innumerable

Offensive- inoffensive

Sanity- insanity

Sincerity- insincerity

Sincere-,insincere

Tolerance- intolerance

Tolerable- intolerable

Validation- invalidation

4) 'Dis' : not,

     Stem: verb, noun and adjective

Examples:

1. Comfort(noun)-   discomfort(noun)

2. Unity(noun)    - disunity (noun)

3. Compose (verb) - discompose(noun)

4. Composure( noun)  - discomposure( noun)

5. Claim ( verb) - disclaim( verb)

6. Connect ( verb) - disconnect( verb)

7. Connected (adjective) - disconnected (adjective)

8. Honest (adjective)-

 dishonest (adjective)

9. Establish (verb) - disestablish(verb)

10. Like (verb) - dislike (verb)

11.  Similar (adjective) - 

 dissimilar (adjective)

12. Respect (noun)- disrespect (noun)

13. Unite( verb) - disunite(verb)

14. United(adjective) - disunited(adjective)

15. Use(verb) - disuse( verb)

5) 'A'  : lacking in

    Added to noun and adjective stems

Examples:

 Historical (adjective) -

 ahistorical (adjective)

Symmetry (noun) - asymmetry(noun)

          REVERSE PREFIXES:

1)'Un' : reverse action or  deprivable

Stem: Verb

Example:

Chain (verb) - unchain( verb)

Clothe( verb) - unclothe(verb)

Dress(verb)- undress(verb)

Fold(verb) - unfold(verb)

Load (verb)- unload(verb)

Make(verb) - unmake(verb)

Mask(verb)- unmask(verb)

Pack(verb)- unpack(verb)

Roll(verb)- unroll(verb)

Say(verb)- unsay(verb)

Set(verb)- upset (verb)

2) 'De' reverse action

 Added to the stems: noun and abstract noun.

Examples:

 Control (verb) - decontrol( verb)

 Flower (verb)-   deflower(verb)

 Generacy( noun)- degeneracy (noun)

 Hydration ( noun)- dehydration ( abstract noun)

Moralize(verb)- demoralize(verb)

Test( verb)- detest( verb)

Forestation(abstract noun)- deforestation

3) 'Dis' : as same as 'un'

 Stems: verb, participle and noun

Examples:

 Charge (verb) - discharge (verb)

 Colour ( verb)- discolour (verb)

Arm(verb) - disarm(verb)

Burden ( verb)- disburden( verb)

Continuing(participle) - discontinuing

Join(verb)- disjoin(verb)

Order(noun)- disorder (noun)

Similitude ( noun)- dissimilitude(noun)

Satisfied ( participle) - dissatisfied.        

(participle adjective)

 

DISAPPROVAL TYPE PREFIXES:

1. 'Mis' : wrong, astry

Stem: verb, abstract noun

Examples:

Behave(verb)- misbehave

Fit(verb)- misfit

Spell(verb) - misspell

Use(verb) - misuse

Take(noun) - mistake

Representation (noun) - misrepresentation

Statement (noun) - misstatement

2. 'Mal': badly

Stem: verb, abstract noun, adjective, participle.

Examples:

Practice (noun)- malpractice

Nutrition (noun)- 

malnutrition

Odorous (adjective)

- malodorous

Administration (noun)- maladministration

Treat ( verb)- maltreat

Adjusted ( participle)- maladjusted

3. 'Pseudo': false, 

Added to : noun and adjective

Examples:

Name(noun)- pseudonym

Scopic(adjective)- pseudoscopic

 DEGREE AND SIZE PREFIXES

1.'Arch':  prime or main,worst

Stem: noun

Examples:

Bishop( noun)- archbishop

Angel (noun)- archangel

2. 'super': above, more than,

Stem:noun and adjective

Examples:

Excellent (adjective)

- superexcellent

Fine(adjective)-superfine

Man(noun)- Superman

Structure ( noun)- superstructure

3. 'out': faster and longer

Stem: verb

Examples:

Bid(verb)- outbid

Lay(verb)- outlay

Live(verb)- outlive

Shine(verb)- outshine

Vote ( verb)- outvote

Weigh( verb) - outweigh

4. 'Sur': over and above

Stem: noun

Examples:

Plus(noun)- surplus

Tax(noun)- surtax

Charge (noun)- surcharge.

5. 'Sub' : lower than , less than

  Stem: adjective

Examples;

marine - submarine

Conscious- subconscious

Cutaneous- subcutaneous

Human - subhuman

Continent- subcontinent

6. 'Over' : too much

    Stem: verb, adjective, participle

Examples;

   Ripe- overripe ( verb)

   Top-  overtop( verb)

    Value- overvalue(verb)

    Work- overwork(verb)

    Strained- overstrained( participle)

    Flowing- overflowing(participle)

    Cautious- overcautious(adjective)

    Due  - overdue(adjective)

    Act- overact(verb)

     Look - overlook(verb)

     Much - overmuch(adjective)

     Nice( adjective)- overnice(adj)

7.'Under' : too little

   Stem: verb, participle, adjective

   Examples:

    Sell(verb) - undersell(verb)

     Ground (adjective)- underground

     Privileged (participle adjective)- underprivileged (participle adjective)

Lying( participle adjective)- underlying (participle adjective)

Mentioned (participle adjective) - undermentioned( participle adjective)

Most(participle adjective) - undermentioned ( participle adjective)

Pay (verb) - underpay(verb)

Cook ( verb) - uncook ( verb)

8. 'Hyper': extremely

     Stem: adjective

Examples;

 Conscious(adjective) - hyperconscious( adjective)

Sensitive (adjective) - hypersensitive ( adjective)

Physical(adjective) - hyperphysical( adjective)

9. 'Ultra' : extremely, beyond

    Stem: adjective

Examples;

Modern ( adjective)- ultramodern ( adjective)

Violent (adjective) - ultraviolet

10. 'Mini' : little

      Stem: noun

Examples;

Bus (noun) - mini- bus

Skirt ( noun) - mini- skirt

11. 'Maxi': large, long

     Stem ; noun

Examples;

Skirt - maxi- skirt.

PREFIXES OF MANNER OR BEARING:

1. 'Co' : with, joint

Stem: verb , noun

Examples;

Heir( noun)- co-heir( noun)

Signatory (noun)- co - signatory

Operate (verb) - co-operate

Operation ( noun) - cooperation

2. 'counter' : opposite

Stem: verb, abstract noun

Examples;

  Attack ( verb)- counter- attack

 Attraction ( noun) - counter - attraction ( noun)

Charge (verb) - counter- change

Move ( noun) - counter- move

3. 'Anti' : against

Stem: noun, adjective, adverb

Examples;

Malarial ( adjective)- antimalarial (adjective)

National (adjective)- anti-national

Pole( noun)- antipole ( noun)

Semitism (noun)- anti- semitism

4. 'Pro' : in the side of

Added to noun

Examples;

Life( noun)- pro-life

Communist ( noun) - pro-communist

N.B. 'anti' means the opposite, but 'counter' means the suggestion of opposition.

LOCATIVE PREFIXES:

1. super: over,

Added a noun.

Examples;

structure(noun) - superstructure

tanker(noun) - supertanker, etc.

2. sub: beneath, lesser in rank

Added to nouns, adjectives and verbs.

Examples:

lieutenant(noun)- sub lieutenant

let(verb)- sublet

plot(noun) -subplot

lunar(adjective)- sublunar(adjective)

3. inter: between, among

stems: adjective, verb and noun

examples;

continental(adjective) - intercontinental(adjective)

costal(adjective) - intercostal

collegiate(adjective) intercollegiate

act(verb\ noun) - interact(verb\ noun)

4. trans: across

Added to verb or adjective( denominal)

Examples;

pose(verb) - transpose

substantiate(verb) -transubstantiate(verb)

portable(adjective) - transportable

TIME AND ORDER PREFIXES:

1.  fore: before, 

Stems: a verb and an abstract noun

Examples:

noon - forenoon

tell - foretell

word- foreword

runner- forerunner

2. pre: before

Added to a noun and an abstract noun

Examples:

arrange(noun) - prearrange

cursory - precursory

existence( noun)-   pre- existence

3. post: after

Added to nouns and Adjectives

Examples:

graduate(adjective)-  post- graduate

war(noun) -  post- war

classical( adjective)  - post- classical

4. ex: former

stem: noun

examples;

Ex- Army

Ex- husband

5. re: again, 

Added to a verb,an  abstract noun

Examples;

new(verb) - renew

open(verb) - reopen

place(verb) - replace

settlement (noun) resettlement( noun)

                  NUMBER PREFIXES

1. ‘Uno’ or ‘Mono’ = one

examples;

cameral : unicameral ( adjective)

cellular: unicellular(adjective)

laleral : unilateral( adjective)

cord: monocord(noun)

gamous: monogamous(adjective)

grapher: monographer( noun)

mania: monomania(noun)

2. ‘Bi’ or ‘di’= two

examples;

cyclist: bicyclist( noun)

centennial: bicentennial(adj)

lingual: bilingual

3. ‘ Tri” = tree

examples;

logy: trilogy(noun)

monthly: trimonthly(noun)

partite: tripartite(adjective)

sector: trisector(verb)

4. ‘Multi’ or ‘ Poly’ = many

examples;

tasking: multitasking( adj)

tangular: multangular

millionaire: multimillionaire(noun)

lingual: multilingual( adjective)

clinic: polyclinic( noun)

theistic: polytheistic(adj)

N. B. 

Bimonthly: every two months, or twice every month

Biweekly: every two weeks, or twice every week

                     CONVERSION PREFIXES

Prefixes are used in different shades of meaning. But the following prefixes are used in changing parts of speech.

1. ‘Be’

Normally added to noun and formed verb  and participle adjectives:

fitting: befitting(adj)

fog( verb) : befog(verb)

fogged( adj) befogged(adj)

friend(verb) befriended

2. ‘ En’ 

Normally added to noun and formed verb:

danger: endanger(verb)

slave: enslave(verb)

large: enlarge(verb)

mesh: enmesh(verb)

3. ‘A’ = a particular condition or having a lack

formed non gradable adjective ( predicative)

Historic: ahistoric(adj)

float: afloat(adj)

                  OTHER PREFIXES

1. ‘Auto’ = self

Biography: autobiography

renew: auto renew

2. ‘Vice’= additional

chairman: vice chairman

3. Neo= new

Neo- classical

4. Pan=  all or worldwide

America: pan- America

5. ‘Proto’= first or original

type: prototype

6. ‘Semi’ = half

urban: semi- urban

           

                  SUFFIXES

                     NOUN SUFFIXES 

1. Occupational: 

1. ‘ster’-

 Added to: Noun

Resulting word : Noun

Meaning : persons engage in.

Examples :

gang+ster =gangster.

joke + ster = jokester

song+ ster = songster

2. ‘eer’

Added to : Noun

Resulting word : noun

Meaning : activity/ occupation

Examples :

London +eer = Londoneer

Market +eer = marketeer

Engine +eer = engineer

Mountain +eer = mountaineer

Musket +eer = musketeer

   b. Diminutive:

1. ‘let’

Addet to : count noun

Resulting word : count noun

Meaning : small

Examples,

Book +let = booklet 

Pig +let = piglet.

Lance +let = lancelet

River + let = rivulet

2. ‘ette’

Added to : Noun

resulting word : noun 

Meaning : small

Examples:

Cigar +ette = cigarette.

Kitchen + ette = kitchenette

leather + ette = leatherette

3. ‘ ie’ or ‘y’

Added to : Noun 

Resulting word : Noun

Meaning : Affection

Examples :

Aunt +ie = auntie/ aunty

Dog + ie = doggie/ doggy

Sweet + ie = sweetie/ sweety. 

     c. Status/ domain :

1. ‘hood’

Added to : noun 

Resulting word : Abstract noun

Meaning : status

examples:

Boy +hood = Boyhood

child +hood = childhood

Mother +hood = motherhood

Woman + hood =womanhood.

Senior +hood = seniorhood

2. ‘ship’

Added to : Noun 

Resulting word : Abstract noun

Meaning : status

Exmpl:

Friend +ship = Friendship

Head + ship = headship

Town + ship = township

3. ‘dom’

Added to : Noun

Resulting Word : Abstract noun

Meaning : status

Exmpl,

Star +dom = stardom

Film +dom = filmdom

King + dom = kingdom 

Martyr +dom =martyrdom

4. ‘ocracy’

Added to : Noun

Resulting word : Abstract Noun

Meaning : System

Exmpl;

artist +ocracy = aristocracy 

Mob +ocracy = mobocracy

Demos +ocracy =democracy

5. ‘ery’

Added to  : Noun

Resulting word : Abstract noun

Meaning  : Behaviour/ place of activity.

Examples:

Slave + ery =slavery

Wine +ery = winery

Monaster +ery = monastery

Refine +ery = Refinery

d. Other noun suffixes:

1. ‘Ing’ :

Added to :count noun 

Resulting words :  Noun

Meaning : substance.

Examples

Build + ing  = building.

Like + ing = liking

Paint + ing = painting

2.’ ful’

Added to : noun

Resulting word :Noun

Meaning : amount

Examples: 

Cap+ ful = capful 

Mouth + ful = mouthful

Spoon + ful = spoonful

3. ‘ling’

Added to : noun

Resulting words : noun

Meaning : youngs

examples

Gose + ling = gosling

Duck + ling = duckling.

Prince + ling = princeling

4. ‘ite’

Added to : Noun

Resulting words : noun

Meaning : Persons associated with/ doctrine / system

Examples

Israile +ite = Israelite

social + ite = socialite

5. ‘ian’

Added to :  noun

Resulting word : personal noun/ non-gradable Adjective

Meaning: language/ citizenship/ possess/relating to

Examples

History + ian = historian

music +ian = musician

India + ian = Indian

6. ‘ese’ 

Added to : noun

Resulting word : noun/adjective

Meaning : nationality/ language/ belong to

Example

China + ese = chinese

Japan + ese = Japanese

legal +ese = legalese

7. ‘ist’

Added to :verb

Resulting word : noun/adjective

Meaning :member/ occupation/ skilled

Examples

Drama +ist = Dramatist

Social +ist = Socialist

science +ist + scientist

8. ‘ism’ = ‘ist’

Added to : noun/ Adjective

Resulting word : Abstract noun.

Meaning : attitude

Examples

Ideal +ism = idealism

Pagan +ism = paganism

Marx + ism = Marxism

Sceptic + ism = scepticism

9. ‘er/or’

Added to : dynamic verb

Resulting word : noun

Meaning : Someone or something

Examples

Play+er = player

view +er = viewer

Read +er =driver

Receive + er = receiver

Feed +er = feeder

suit +or = suitor

dictate +or = dictator

Edit +or = editor

collect + or = collector

send +er = sender

10. ‘ ant’

Added to : verb

Resulting Word : Noun

Meaning : Instrument/ doer

Examples

toler + ant =tolerant

cool +ant = coolant

Disinfect +ant =disinfectant

11. ‘ee’

Added to : verb

Resulting word : noun

meaning : person engage in

Examples

 Detain +ee = detainee

License +ee = licensee

train + ee = trainee

Examine +ee = examinee

12. ‘ation’/ tion

Added to : verb

Resulting word : Abstract noun

Meaning : state

Examples

Organize + ation = Organisation

Emancipate +ation = emancipation

Collect + ation = collection

Nonparticipate +ation = nonparticipation

13. ‘ment’

Added to :verb

Resulting word : abstract noun(most cases)

Meaning :State or action

Examples

Accompany +ment = accompaniment

Achieve +ment = achievement

Agree +ment = agreement

Bestow +ment = bestowment

14. ‘al’

Added to :verb 

Resulting word : abstract noun

Meaning : action

Examples

Arrive +al = arrival

Refuse +al = refusal

Approve +al = approval

15. ‘ age’

Added to : verb

Resulting word : noun

Meaning : activity

Examples

Drain +age = drainage

Break +age =breakage

Carry +age = carriage

16. ‘ness’ 

Added to : adjective

Resulting word :Abstract noun

Meaning :state or quality

Examples

Happy +ness =happiness

Smooth +ness = smoothness

Bright +ness = brightness.

17. ‘ity’ 

Added to : adjective

resulting word : Noun

Meaning : state / quality

Examples,

Responsible +ity = responsibility

Respectable +ity = respectability

unavailable + ity = unavailability.

      VERB SUFFIXES 

   

 

      [be continued]